Ancient Egyptian Coffin and Cartonnage Masks

Thousands of years ago, the Egyptians hoped to achieve eternal life through identification with the funerary god Osiris.  They believed that the deceased would attain immortality if the body was preserved for resurrection and if proper funerary rites were observed.  The mummy masks and the anthropoids sarcophagus emulated the divine Osiris, and aided the deceased in the perilous journey to the next world where it was believed that resurrection would magically occur.

The embalmed bodies of the dead were wrapped for protection before they were deposited in coffins, called sarcophagi, which were usually made of wood.  This wrapping, made of layers of linen or papyrus stiffened with gesso (plaster) and then painted with bright multi-colored decoration that carried symbolic significance is called cartonnage.  It was most commonly used for mummy masks, mummy cases, anthropoid coffins and other funerary items.

These two pieces, the covering for the head and torso, were the most significant elements of the cartonnage, as they protected the most vital areas of the body of the deceased.  At the top of the breastplate is a winged Sun disc with “Uraeus” serpents appended at each side.  Below it is the representation of the deceased, pictured as he or she lays mummified within his or her cartonnage.

At the bottom, and dominating the decorative scheme, is a large standing winged goddess, with a Sun disk on her head.  The features on the head covering are idealized according to the conventions of Egyptian style.  Its smiling face has the character of a mask, with its smooth transitions between the facial planes and the absence of naturalistic details.  The eyes are given special emphasis and are rendered as large, full almond shapes clearly outlined.  Above them, are heavily painted brows that lay in drawing attention to the eyes below.

Once the mummy was entombed within the wooden sarcophagus, a life size image of the deceased – a “Kah” – was placed over the face.  The “Ka” or “Kah” masks were made of cedar wood from Lebanon, as wood was scarce in ancient Egypt.  Wooden mummy masks were unusually constructed of small pieces joined together and pegged into place on the front of the sarcophagus.   The mask and the sarcophagus were then covered with plaster and religious motifs to help the deceased in his or her voyage.

Ancient Greco-Roman Medical & Surgical Instruments

Just like today, physicians in the Classical World had access to a variety of intricate medical & surgical instruments that were designed to aid them in their treatment of the sick and injured.

Several ancient texts mention the use of surgical tools and instruments used by doctors in antiquity. The precise date when each instrument was first employed is largely unknown. The most of the instruments seemed to have been available to Hippocrates (c. 460) and continued to be used throughout the late Roman Empire with several existing in a similar form still being used by physicians today.  The Greco-Roman Age covers the period when the Romans ruled the Greek World.  Greek medicine and surgery grew up side by side, as partners and medicine continued to develop under the Romans who had gained much of their medical knowledge from the Greeks; so much so that Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to all free-born Greek physicians practicing in Rome.  The Romans easily conquered Macedonia and Greece in 197 BC but proclaimed “the freedom of Greece” the following year only to return in 167 BC to abolish the Macedonian kingdom that refused to follow their wishes.  Roman armies swept into Southern Greece taking action against those who disobeyed their orders. Another recognized period known as the Greco-Roman occurred from the time of the great physician, Galen, until the fall of the Roman Empire.  Toward the end of this era, Greek influence began to fade.  Only a few medical men were respected but most were little better off than slaves do. After a time, Roman medicine fell into the orbit of Byzantine Culture and lost the original virility inherited from the Greeks. 

Following are types of ancient medical instruments:

Scalpels: Could be made of steel, bronze, or a combination of the two metals (such as a steel blade and a bronze handle). Ancient scalpels had almost the same form and function as their modern counterparts do today. The two long steel scalpels that make up the first and third columns of the accompanying image are examples of the most ordinary type of scalpel from antiquity. These long scalpels could be used to make a variety of incisions, but they seem to be particularly suited to making either deep or long cuts. The four bronze scalpels, which make up columns two and four, are generally referred to as "bellied scalpels." This variety of scalpel was another favorite of physicians in antiquity since the shape of its handle allowed more delicate and precise cuts to be made (such as incisions between ribs).

Hooks:  Another common instrument used regularly by Greek and Roman doctors. The hooks, the ancient doctors used, came in two basic varieties: sharp and blunt. Both of these types of hooks are still used by modern surgeons for many of the same purposes for which the ancient doctors first used them. For instance, blunt hooks were primarily used as probes for dissection and for raising blood vessels. Sharp hooks, were used to hold and lift small pieces of tissue so that they could be extracted and to retract the edges of wounds. 

Forceps:  Probably designed to facilitate the amputation of the uvula. This procedure, as described by Aetius in the first half of the sixth century, called for the physician to crush the uvula with forceps before cutting it off in order to prevent hemorrhaging.  Forceps also were used by ancient doctors to extract the small fragments of bone, which could not be grasped by the fingers. Naturally, physicians often used such forceps in conjunction with bone drills.

Bone Drills: Generally driven in their rotary motion by means of a thong in various configurations. Greek and Roman physicians used bone drills in order to excise diseased bone tissue from the skull and to remove foreign objects of considerable thickness (such as a weapon) from a bone. 

Ancient medical tools are popular at Sadigh Gallery, and we have variety sets of medical instruments available to purchase.  We also have ones that are mounted in frames. Some of our customers who practice medicines have informed us that they are displaying these artifacts on the walls of their medical offices.

Click on the below link to see Sadigh Gallery Ancient Art’s collections of ancient Greco-Roman medical tools:

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Cuneiform Clay Cones

Writing in ancient Mesopotamia evolved in response to a need for accurate record keeping. Once the idea that sounds and ideas could be communicated by a series of consistent symbols was understood, the script developed and was quickly pressed into practical service. Cuneiform script evolved directly from picture drawings becoming more and more stylized until a standard script developed. The first known cuneiform texts are from the ancient city of Uruk, in southern Iraq and date from about 3,000 BC. They reveal a complex business structure already in operation.

Side by side with the economic texts were dedication texts. The practice of consecrating the foundations of new buildings seems to have started almost as early as building itself.

In order to insure that the sanctuaries of the various gods would last forever, they were built on sacred ground and the foundations were laid with great ceremony. Special deposit objects were carefully placed in the foundations and walls.

Foundation deposits took many forms and inscribed clay cone and nails were often placed in the corners, and under entrance halls. The inscriptions usually named the king and the deity to whom the sanctuary was being dedicated.

FOR EXAMPLE:

TO MARDUK, HIS LORD, NEBUCHADEZZAR, THE KING OF BABYLON, FOR HIS LIFE, HE PRESENTED IT.

Sadigh Gallery has acquired a collection of ancient cuneiform clay cones dating from 2,000 – 1,000 BC each with its own translation. These cones are made of terra cotta and stand from 4 to 6 inches tall. Each one is mounted on a custom made base.

View our collection of Foundation cones here:

http://www.sadighgallery.com/search.asp?keyword=foundation cones&sortby=0&catid=34

Ancient Egyptian Beads

Ancient Egyptian faience beads are generally found in the Egyptian burial grounds mummies and the scientific explorations of ancient mummies have brought a huge treasure of beads to the modern man for their collection. Each and every bead is unique and they are definitely a treasure to be kept in collection.

Beads, worn by both men and woman in Egypt, were believed to bring good luck.  The Egyptian word “sha” means luck and sha became the word for bead.  A number of semi-precious stones were available from Egypt’s natural resources but in ancient times, the greatest number of beads was made from faience, an inexpensive ceramic paste that was developed around 4000 BC in Egypt and Mesopotamia.  Faience is the forerunner of glass and although the recipe was a closely guarded secret, the technology spread throughout the Ancient World. 

During the late Dynastic Period in Egypt (circa 1085 BC), faience beads were produced primarily for funerary use.  Egyptians believed that to insure comfort in the Netherworld, the deceased should be surrounded by items from daily life.  Quantities of faience beads were buried with the mummy and sometimes they were strung in an intricate manner to fashion a shroud that served as an outer covering for the mummy’s linen wrapping.

In the second millennium BC, the Romans emerged from a small settlement near Rome to begin a course of expansion that was to make them the dominant power in the Mediterranean.  By the 1st Century AD, Roman territories expanded from Britain in the north to Egypt in the south.  Much of the Roman culture and crafts reflected the preceding Hellenistic period; however, their extensive trade network provided them with a great variety of materials.  Artisans often combined styles and materials creating their own unique designs.  While personal adornment was frowned upon by the early Romans, their attitude of austerity had diminished by the 1st Century BC and a rich variety of jewelry abounded.  Roman jewelry reflected both the Hellenistic influence and the Eastern taste for colored stones.

Sadigh gallery houses thousands of authentic ancient Egyptian beads.  We also carry already made necklaces, earrings, and bracelets with these ancient beads.  At the same time, the unstrung beads are extremely popular among our jewelry making customers who wish to combine beauty of the past history and their creativity together.

Click on the below link to find collection of ancient Egyptian beads from Sadigh Gallery:

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Ancient Egyptian Canopic Jars and the Four Sons of Horus

Canopic jars were stone and ceramic vessels used for the burial of the viscera removed during mummification.  The term, canopic, derives from the misconception that they were connected with the human-headed jars that were worshipped as personifications of the God Osiris by the inhabitants of the ancient Egyptian port of Canopus, named after the Homeric character who was Menelaus’ pilot.  The "Canopus of Osiris" image appeared on some Roman coins from the Alexandrian mint and the name was therefore chosen by early Egyptologists to refer to any jar with a stopper in the form of a human head.  The practice of preserving eviscerated organs.

During mummification, it is first attested in the burial of Hetepheres, mother of the 4th dynasty ruler, Khufu (2589-2566 BC), at Giza.  Her viscera were stored in a travertine (Egyptian alabaster) chest divided into four compartments, three of which contained the remains of her organs in natron while the fourth held a dry organic material.  In later burials, specific elements of the viscera were placed under the protection of four anthropomorphic genii known as the sons of Horus who were themselves protected by tutelary deities guarding the four cardinal points.  The human-headed Imsety, linked with Isis and the south, protected the liver; the ape-headed Hapy, linked with Nephthys and the North, cared for the lungs; the jackal-headed Duamutef, linked with Neith and the east, guarded the stomach; and the falcon-headed Qebehsenuef, linked with Serket and the west, looked after the intestines. 

During the first intermediate period (2181-2055 BC), the jars began to be provided with stoppers in the form of human heads and, at this time, the canopic bundles were sometimes decorated with human-faced masks.  By the late Middle Kingdom, a set of canopic equipment could be comprised of two chests, a stone-carved outer container and a wooden inner one holding four jars furnished with stoppers in the form of human heads.  In the early 18th Dynasty, the stoppers were still human-headed, as in the case of the canopic equipment of Tutankhamen, but from the later 18th Dynasty onwards, it became more common for the stoppers to take the form of the characteristic heads of each of the four genii and, by the 19th Dynasty, these had completely replaced the human-headed type.  In the third intermediate period (1069-747 BC), mummified viscera were usually returned to the body, sometimes accompanied by models of the relevant genii, but empty or dummy canopic jars were occasionally still included in rich burials.  Canopic equipment is found in Ptolemaic tombs but had ceased to be used by the Roman period.  The last known royal canopic jars belonged to après (589-570 BC) and one of these survived through its reuse as a vessel containing the body of a mummified hawk at Saqqara.

Find authentic ancient Egyptian carnopic jars at Sadigh Gallery website!

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Egyptian Coffins & Sarcophagus

The term “Coffin” is usually applied to the rectangular or anthropoid container in which the Egyptians placed the mummified body, whereas the word “Sarcophagus” (Greek: “Flesh-Eating”) is used to refer only to the stone outer container, invariably encasing one or more coffins.  The distinction made between these two items of Egyptian funerary equipment is therefore essentially an artificial one, since both shared the same role of protecting the body of the deceased.  In terms of decoration and shape, coffins and sarcophagi drew on roughly the same iconographic stylistic repertoire.

The earliest burials in Egypt contain no coffins and were naturally desiccated by the hot sand.  The separation of the body of deceased from the surrounding sand by the use of a coffin or sarcophagus ironically led to the deterioration of the body, perhaps stimulating developments in mummification.  The religious purpose of the coffin was to ensure the well-being of the deceased in the afterlife, literally providing a “house” for the “Ka”.

The earliest coffins were baskets or simple plank constructions in which the body was placed in a flexed position.  From these developed and valuated house-shaped coffins that remained in use into the fourth Dynasty (2613 – 2494 BC).  At around this time, the Egyptians began to bury the deceased body in an extended position, perhaps because the increasingly common practice of evisceration made such an arrangement more suitable.  By the end of the Old Kingdom (2181 BC), food offerings were being painted on the inside of coffins as an extra means of providing sustenance for the deceased in the event of the tomb chapel being destroyed or neglected.  In the Old & Middle Kingdom, a pair of eyes was often painted on the side of the coffin that faced east when it was placed in the tomb.  It was evidently believed that the deceased could therefore look out of the coffin to see his or her offerings and the world from which he or she had passed, as well as to view the rising Sun. 

Decorated coffins became still more important in the First Intermediate Period (2181 – 2055 BC), when many tombs contained little mural decoration.  It was thus essential that coffins themselves should incorporate the basic elements of the tomb and by the Middle Kingdom (2055 – 1650 BC), they often incorporated revised extracts of the Pyramid Texts, known as the coffin texts.  This change reflects the increased identification of the afterlife with Osiris, rather than the Sun-God “Ra”.

Anthropoid coffins first appeared in the 12th Dynasty (1985 – 1795 BC), apparently serving as substitute bodies lest the original be destroyed.  With the New Kingdom (1550 – 1069 BC), this form of coffins became more popular and the shape became identified with Osiris himself; his beard and crossed arms sometimes being added.  The feathered, rishi coffins of the 17th and early 18th Dynasty were once thought to depict the wings of the goddess Isis, embracing her husband Osiris, but are now considered by some scholars to refer to the BA bird.  Rectangular coffins were effectively replaced by anthropoid types in the 18th Dynasty; but some of their decorative elements were retained.

In the Third Intermediate Period (1069 – 747 BC), coffins, papyri and stelae became the main vehicles for funerary scenes that had previously been carved and painted on the walls of tomb chapels.  The principal feature of most of the new scenes depicted on coffins was the Osirian and solar mythology surrounding the concept of rebirth, including the judgment of the deceased before Osiris and the journey into the underworld, the voyage of the Solar Bark and parts of the Litany of Ra.  Among the new scenes introduced in the decoration of coffins and on funerary papyri was the depiction of the separation of the earth-god Geb from the sky-goddess Nut.

The excavation of the 21st & 22nd Dynasty royal tombs at Tanis has provided a number of examples of the royal coffins of the period (although the sarcophagi were sometimes reused from the New Kingdom).  The cache of mummies of high priests of Amun at Deir el-Bahri has also yielded a large number of private coffins of the 21st Dynasty (1069 – 945 BC).  It was also from the end of the New Kingdom onwards that the interiors of the coffins began to be decorated again; beneath the lid-especially in the 22nd Dynasty (945 – 715 BC), there was often a representation of Nut, while the “goddess of the West”, Hathor, or the Djed Pillar began to be portrayed on the coffin floor.  During the Late Period, extracts from the Book of the Dead were sometimes also inscribed inside the coffin. 

In the 25th Dynasty a new repertoire of coffin types, usually consisting of sets of two or three (including an inner case with pedestal, an intermediate anthropoid outer coffin), was introduced, becoming established practice by the 26th Dynasty.  Late Period coffins were characterized by archaism, involving the reintroduction of the earlier styles of coffin decoration, such as the provision of the eye panel.

There are comparatively few excavated burials dating from c.525 to 350 BC, but more coffins have survived from the succeeding phase (30th Dynasty and early Ptolemaic Period), when they typically have disproportionately large heads and wigs.  During the early Ptolemaic Period, many mummies were provided with cartonnage masks and plaques, fixed on to the body by strips of line.

Ancient Egyptian Scarabs

Common type of amulet, seal or ring bezel found in Egypt. Inscribed Scarabs were issued to commemorate important events or buried with mummies.  The Scarab is so called because it was made in the shape of the sacred Scarab beetle (Scarabaeus sacer), which was personified by KHEPRI, a sun God associated with resurrection.  The flat underside of the scarab, carved in stone or molded in faience or glass, was usually decorated with designs or inscriptions, sometimes incorporating a royal name.  

The earliest were purely amuletic and uninscribed; it was only during the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC) that they were used as seals.  The term scaraboid is used to describe a seal or amulet, which has the same ovoid shape as a scarab, but may have its back carved in the form of some creature other than the scarab beetle.  This appears to have developed out of the practice of carving two-dimensional animal forms on the flat underside of the scarab, which is known as early as the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BC).

During the reign of Amenhotep III (1390-1352 BC), a series of unusually large scarabs were produced to celebrate certain events or aspects of Amenhotep’s reign, from the hunting of bulls and lions to the listing of the titles of Queen Tiy.  There were also a number of funerary types of scarabs such as the large “winged scarab”, virtually always made of blue faience and incorporated into the bead nets covering mummies, and the “heart Scarab", usually inscribed with Chapter 30B of the Book of the Dead which was included in burials from at least the 13th Dynasty (1795-1650 BC) onward.

An extensive collection of scarabs, ranging from tiny (½"-¾") faience scarabs to heart scarabs made of limestone, are available at Sadigh Gallery. While heart scarabs show beautiful inscriptions and symbols, simpler amulet scarabs are available at more affordable prices and are able to be redesigned on modern jewelry settings.  In fact, we have lapis lazuli, carnelian, and turquoise scarab amulets set on modern earrings, rings, or necklace settings, which are popular among Sadigh Gallery customers as gifts. 

Lapis lazuli scarabs pictured here are especially popular with our customers and are  available in quantity. Lapis is metamorphosed form of limestone, rich in the blue mineral lazulite, a complex feldspathoid that is dark blue in color and often flecked with impurities of calcite, iron pyrites or gold. The Egyptians considered that ‘its appearance imitated that of the heavens’ and considered it to be superior to all materials other than gold and silver.  They used it extensively in jewelry until the Late Period (747-332 BC) when it was particularly popular for amulets. 

Visit http://www.sadighgallery.com to see variety of scarabs available at our gallery!

Ancient Roman Mosaic Art

Here at Sadigh Gallery we carry artifacts from various cultures, sizes varying from micro-sized beads to large basalt statues. Among these antiquities, ancient mosaic panels are the examples of the most decorative artifacts for they remain in great vibrancy of color due to their great durability.  Mosaic panels we carry are from ancient Rome.  When you visit Sadigh Gallery Ancient Art, Inc., you are welcomed to observe these Roman panels closely, and even touch them.  By looking at these artworks, one can imagine the artists’ great time and patience for covering floor spaces in both durable and well-designed way.  

Here is a brief history of ancient mosaic art:

Mosaic is a form of decorated art, an aspect of interior decoration or of a cultural significance as a cathedral in which small pieces of colored material were used to create a pattern or a picture.  Significantly used in Roman Dwellings but was used in ancient times for domestic interior decoration.

The art for was not born in a particular time or place and therefore requires an understanding of the civilization.  Mosaics appeared sporadically in different cultures and locations not connected with the others.  The beginnings are difficult to identify but historians believe that the art form originated somewhere in the Orient.

Two thousand years BC, the first manifestations were in Chaldean architecture where some columns were covered with mosaics, small cones of clay were embedded in the structure and painted.

Mosaics were drawn by an artist and passed on to an artisan who would make the tesserae (individual pieces) for the mosaic. Broken pottery and stone based materials made the colors of the mosaic most often laid by hand. The most common color combinations used were Ironstone (red and brown), Limestone and sandstone (yellow and brown), slate (blue and black) and Chalk (white).  They were set at slight angles to the wall so they caught the light in various different places. Mosaics were also formed from naturally colored pebbles. 

Egyptians were the first to use glass paste in palaces and temples, and it is believed the usage of glass mosaics reached Italy from Egypt.  

One of the Roman remains mostly intact were the mosaics as they were considered the roman carpets of time.  Romans used mosaics as their floor coverings and while the walls mostly fell to decay the floors were left intact.  Often times only the wealthy could afford a mosaic as a personalization of their family and used to make a statement about their position in society.  Mosaic panels were also used for public places  such as schools, public baths, and shops, for decorative reasons.  

In the 4th century BC, Mosaics were found in the Macedonian palace-city of Aegae, and they enriched the floors of Hellenistic Villas.  In the late 4th Century, wall and ceiling mosaics were adapted to Christian uses. The greatest developments were from the Byzantine Empire.

In the Greek-Roman period, various techniques of decoration were popular:

• Opus Signinum: In this technique developed by the Greeks the mosaic was constituted of “ciottoli”, or pebbles, that were randomly placed, with rudimental designs, and cemented into place with clay or plaster.

• Opus tesselatum: In this technique, the mosaic is constituted or small pieces, mostly squares of about one centimeter, made of stone, enamel, and glass paste, also colored.  The pieces were placed one next to the other with very little space between so as not to show the underlying base.

• Opum vermiculatum:  This technique was very similar to the Opus tesselatum, differing mostly in the way in which the pieces were cut to shape and size best suited for the design that was being created.  The outlines figures were more accurately depicted.

• Opus sectile:  In this type of mosaic, designs were not depicted with pieces of stone etc but instead with pieces of marble or hard stones, cut in such a manner to create uniform colors or patterns.

Materials of various origins are found in mosaics.  The most common are marble, glass paste, terracotta, mother or pearl, shells, enamels, gold and silver, depending on what was more suited to the effect that was sought.

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At Sadigh Gallery we carry magnificent Roman tesserae floor panels, mounted on wooden frames.

View these collections here:

http://www.sadighgallery.com/search.asp?keyword=Mosaic&sortby=0&catid=32

Ancient Glass History

Little is known about the production of glass in the ancient world.  One early source, Pliny the Elder (AD 23 – 89), reported the tale of natron (soda) merchants who, when they stopped to prepare a meal, supported their cooking vessels on the beach with blocks from their cargo.  The heat of the fire fused natron and sand, and a new substance was formed.  This, Pliny says, was the origin of glass.

Glass-like materials were used in Egypt long before the production of glass itself.  Egyptian faience, a popular material used in the production of amulets and small vessels, was a mixture of quartz sand with an alkali binder.   It was molded, and then fired, causing a bright glaze to migrate to the surface.  Real glass is more difficult to produce, because its ingredients must be heated to a high enough temperature to melt and then fuse completely.  Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets contain some references to glass making, indicating that it was a very difficult and secret undertaking.  There is no ancient recipe for the making of glass, but it may be that in an attempt to duplicate the glazes formed in pottery making, the mixture of sand, soda and lime bonded compatibly, thus forming the 4,000 year old lump of blue rod found near Eshuna, which dates from 2,000 BC, is the earliest glass that has been found.

In about 1,500 BC, the technique of “core forming” developed in both Egypt and Mesopotamia.  This new method was an important breakthrough in glass making.  It was a technique that remained in use for over a thousand years, allowed for the production of glass vessels in a thousand years, and allowed for the production of glass vessels in variety of shapes.  A core of mud of about the same size as the completed vessel was placed on the end of an iron rod.  A second rod was dipped into containers of colored molten glass, and the glass was wound around the core material.  This process was repeated many times until the core was covered.  The next step was to wind bands of colored glass around the core glass and to comb them into a design.  The final additions – the rim, the base and may be the handles – were added last.  The piece was slowly cooled and then polished.  It was a lengthy and expensive process, and core-formed glass was available only to rulers and nobility. 

The Millefiori technique (Italian for “a thousand flowers”) was also known in Mesopotamia as early as 1500 BC.  This method required a group of various colored glass rods to be placed in a cylindrical mold.  They were heated and fused together, and were then pulled from a small tube, like taffy.  This created a pattern that was then sliced and placed side by side into a decorative mold, in order to create the final shape.  This method too was expensive and time consuming to produce and its colorful patterns were again available only to the wealthy.

Glass blowing was probably the greatest single advance in glass technology.  This revolutionary process was discovered around the middle of the first century BC and seems to have been practiced from the first century AD on.  It involved capturing a molten glass bubble on a hollow metal blowpipe and inflating it to the desired shape and size.  It could be either blown free form or blown into a mold, or a combination of two.  The speed and relative ease with which this technique could be handled opened new vistas for the production and use of glass in the ancient world. 

Glass blowing developed at a time when the Roman Empire, under Augustus Caesar and his successors, wanted peace (Pax Romana), stability and a better way of life, and this included consumer goods.  The combination of a new technology and a demand on the part of the Roman citizen allowed the new method to forge ahead, and blown glass began to rival pottery and metalwork, both in speed of production and in variety of shapes and sizes.  Its smooth surface was easy to clean for reuse, eliminating the storage problem of porous pots.

Syria became the “glass factory” of the Roman Empire, and goods were shipped and stored in glass bottles and wine flowed from glass jugs.  Blown glass was finally inexpensive and available to all.

Today, many examples of ancient Roman Glass are available to collectors.  Unguentaria or “tear bottles”, as they are often called, are the most common items of Roman blown glass.  They vary in size, but usually have a somewhat bulbous base with a long slender neck and a flat rim.  The color varies from colorless to pale blue/ greenish hues, and they sometimes are covered with an iridescent patina.  Unguentaria were used for perfumes, cosmetics, and oils, and are fine examples of ancient glass that can be collected today.